No reliable calibration method has yet been developed for scanning probe friction measurements. As a result, the tribology basic science literature sits on a foundation of uncalibrated measurements that may or may not be comparable across studies. This paper aims to resolve this critical problem. Essentially, we adapt a mature and widely accepted technology, the pre-calibrated reference lever, as a means to store forces from a traceable calibration standard of fixed range (e.g. microbalance) and scale them to accommodate the load ranges (normal and lateral) of an arbitrary scanning probe. This paper presents the theory, demonstrates a simple prototype device and method of use, and validates the approach along several independent lines of analysis. As the results demonstrate, the generalized reference lever method is simple, reliable, and traceable. The concept, approach, and validation will be especially easy to grasp and implement by those who are practiced with the reference lever method of normal force calibration.
Listed In: Mechanical Engineering, Other

Background: Several risk factors have been identified as contributors to the development of shoulder injuries, including glenohumeral internal rotation deficit, rotator cuff weakness, and shoulder instability. However, lasting deficits of the physical characteristics among overhead athletes with a history of a shoulder injury are unknown. Objective: To compare shoulder range of motion (ROM), strength, and upper-quarter dynamic balance between collegiate overhead athletes with and without a history of a shoulder injury. Methods: 58 overhead athletes were distributed into a shoulder injury history group (n=25) and healthy group (n=33). All participants were fully participating in NCAA Division I baseball, softball, volleyball, or tennis and free of any symptoms of shoulder injuries. An investigator measured active ROM for dominant shoulder internal rotation (IR), external rotation (ER), and horizontal adduction (HAD) using a digital inclinometer. Isometric strength for dominant shoulder IR and ER at 90° of abduction was measured using a hand-held dynamometer. The upper quarter dynamic balance was assessed via the Upper Quarter Y-Balance Test (UQYBT). Results: The injury group demonstrated a lower UQYBT mean score in the superolateral direction. However, there were no statistically significant intergroup differences in shoulder ROM, strength, ER/IR strength ratio, and UQYBT in the medial direction and inferolateral direction. Conclusions: Overhead athletes with a previous history of shoulder injury had poorer UQYBT in the superolateral direction despite a lack of ongoing symptoms or deficits in function. Well-planed dynamic balance training and related strengthening exercises may be warranted for overhead athletes to improve their upper quarter functions.
Listed In: Physical Therapy, Sports Science, Other

Introduction and Objectives: It has previously been reported that deterioration in contractile strength and tendon stiffness in the elderly is associated with altered motor task execution and reduced performance while walking [1,2], and that resistance training improves muscle function, resulting in more effective and safer gait characteristics in the older population [3]. In particular, triceps surae (TS) muscle-tendon unit (MTU) properties seem to be an important determinant for walk-to-run transition speed [4], emphasizing the relevant role intrinsic MTU properties play in gait performance. The objective of this empirical study was to examine the hypothesis that maximal walking velocity is related to TS MTU mechanical and morphological properties and their enhanced capacities would improve gait velocity in the elderly. Methods: Thirty four older female adults (66±7 yrs.) took part in the study. Nineteen of them were recruited for the experimental group, who underwent a 14-week TS MTU physical exercise intervention which has been previously established to increase muscle strength and tendon stiffness [5]. The remaining 15 subjects formed the control group (no physical exercise intervention). The experimental group performed three times per week five sets of four repetitive (3·s loading, 3·s relaxation) isometric plantar flexion contractions in order to induce high cyclic strain magnitudes on the TS tendon and aponeurosis. Maximal walking velocity, defined as walking with a double support phase, was determined by using two force plates (60 x 40 cm, 1080 Hz; Kistler, Winterthur, CH) and a motion capture system (Vicon Motion Systems, Oxford, UK) with 12 infrared cameras operating at a frequency of 120 Hz. TS MTU properties were assessed using simultaneous dynamometry and ultrasonography (Esaote MyLab Five; Esaote Biomedica, Genoa, IT). Results: A significant correlation was found between the TS MTU mechanical and morphological properties and maximal gait velocity (0.40 < r < 0.64; P < 0.05; n = 34). The experimental group showed higher TS contractile strength, tendon stiffness, and higher gastrocnemius medialis muscle thickness post- compared to pre-intervention (P < 0.05). However, calculated maximal gait velocity did not differ between pre and post-intervention measurements (2.39 ± 0.41 vs. 2.44 ± 0.45 m·s-1). Control subjects showed no statistically significant differences in maximal gait velocity or TS MTU mechanical and morphological properties. Conclusion: This empirical study confirms previous forward simulation models [4] proposing that intrinsic TS MTU properties are significant determinants of gait performance. However, older adults may not be capable of fully utilizing improvements of the MTU capacities while walking at maximal velocities following a 14 week physical exercise intervention. Therefore, the benefits of a long term physical exercise intervention (1.5 years) will be discussed.
Listed In: Biomechanics, Gait, Other

Introduction: Running is a popular form of physical activity linked to various lower extremity injuries. A commonly used technique for injury prevention and rehabilitation is taping. There is considerable research investigating running biomechanics, however, there has been limited to no research examining the effects of gender, speed, and the type of tape used on two-dimensional lower extremity kinematics. Therefore, the purpose of this pilot study was to investigate the effects of gender, speed, and tape on two-dimensional lower extremity kinematics and stride characteristics during running. Method: Eight healthy runners participated (4 males, 4 females). Taping interventions (Leukotape, Kinesio Tape, no tape) and speeds (2.35 m/s, 3.35 m/s) were randomized and lower extremity stride kinematics were obtained using the Peak Motus System at initial contact, midstance, and toe off of running. Comparisons were made using descriptive statistics. Results: Females exhibited greater hip (FIC= 164.04+1.99°; MIC= 167.54+2.12°) and knee flexion (FIC= 167.73+0.93°; MIC= 170.42+1.65°; FPK= 142.83+1.28°; MPK= 146.35+1.21°), while males had greater ankle dorsiflexion (FIC= 88.60+1.00°; MIC= 84.14+1.08°) and plantarflexion (FTO= 51.90+1.01°; MTO= 55.99+0.825°). Females spent more time in support (FCT= 0.28+0.03s; MCT= 0.26+0.02s) while males spent more time in the air (FFT= 0.45+0.02s; MFT= 0.48+0.01s). Faster speed was associated with greater hip flexion and extension (SIC= 167.57+1.95°; FIC= 164.01+2.11°; STO= 197.14+1.23°; FTO= 201.28+0.74°), peak knee flexion (SPK= 145.39+1.82°; FPK= 143.79+2.39°), and less time during contact (SIC = 0.30+0.01s; FIC= 0.25+0.00s). Conclusion: Gender and speed seem to have effects on lower extremity stride kinematics, whereas type of tape does not.
Listed In: Biomechanics, Gait, Other

Eccentric training may affect the longitudinal adaptation of the muscle. Usually the muscle fiber lengthening during eccentric training is measured by the joint kinematics. Due to tendon compliance, this method offers insufficient information about the muscle fiber behavior. The present study investigated the muscle fiber behavior of the Vastus Lateralis muscle (VL) during eccentric knee contractions in humans by measuring the changes of fascicle length in vivo with ultrasonography, at force levels of 65% and 95% of the maximum voluntary isometric contraction force (MVC). Seven young adults were tested by a Biodex. They performed eccentric knee contractions with one leg at 65% and 95% of their MVC (knee angle 25°-100°, angular velocity 90°/s). Potential joint axis deviations were recorded using a Vicon camera system. Exerted knee moments were captured synchronously with the Vicon system at 1000Hz. Fascicle length of the VL muscle visualized by a 10cm Ultrasound prob. The means and standard deviations of fascicle elongation at 65% and 95% of the MVC were 42.71±8.54mm and 39.11±10.64mm respectively, with no statistically significant difference between both conditions. All subjects showed a plateau or slide decrease in fascicle length at the beginning of the movement. This slight decrease in fascicle length, which occurs despite a lengthening of the VL muscle-tendon unite, can be explained by the tendon compliance. The similar fascicle elongation between the two conditions (65% vs. 95% MVC) reveals that the amplitude of the force level during eccentric knee extension contractions does not affect the lengthening of the fascicle.

Listed In: Biomechanics, Other